“To paraphrase the iconic Marvin the Paranoid Android from Douglas Adams, “Why halt progress now, just as we’re finding it so disagreeable?” From the time of Mary Shelley inking her first words onto the pages of Frankenstein in 1818, the world of artificial life or AI has kept us intrigued with its grim predictions. We’re far from concluding this journey. Here’s a run-through of 12 top AI pioneers in literature, cinema and theatre over the past two centuries.
Starting from Frankenstein (1818), Mary Shelley’s masterwork is considered the bedrock of posthumanism. Her novel Frankenstein; Or, the Modern Prometheus initiated a new literature genre with an electrifying stroke, amalgamating the Golem folklore and Lazarus to conceive the initial creature of artificial life possessing – or burdened by – wants and needs. Moving beyond the mechanical Hollywood ghouls and the lumbering Boris Karloff, Frankenstein’s ‘creature’ exudes humanity at its most profound. The novel brilliantly offers the inaugural fearsome vision of a future where technology starts to exceed the mastery of its inventors.
For RUR (1920), alternatively known as Rossum’s Universal Robots, Karel Capek’s theatrical piece is responsible for the introduction of the term ‘robot’ – derived from the Czech word for ‘serf’. The play foresees a rebellion of artificial beings against their human masters. These are not mechanical beings – they are organic constructs, humanoid in appearance. Eventually weary from incessant heavy work, they retaliate against their creators. However, they realise that the inventive prowess needed to bring their kind to life is a unique human trait. Despite seven unsuccessful nominations for the Nobel Prize in Literature, Capek’s induction of the word ‘robot’ solidifies his legacy. Karel Capek’s RUR and the Vision of Artificial Life published recently by MIT Press is a captivating read for AI enthusiasts.
Finally, comes Metropolis (1927).”
Starting with the clamour, this ground-breaking piece of science fiction was derived from Thea von Harbou’s novel of 1925, set in the year 2026. The aesthetic was majorly inspired by the director, Fritz Lang’s initial encounter with Manhattan in the 1920s. The narrative unfolds in an anticipated dystopian future wherein capitalist tyrants subjugate the common labourers. Freder, an optimist, cherishes his love for the angelic worker, Maria. Her transformation into a revolutionary robot soon stirs chaos in the mechanised society. Three cheers for the bots!
The proclaimed concept of humans cohabiting constructively with automated life, that was introduced through ‘I, Robot’, published in 1950, unfortunately, did not quite pick up. This resulted in Isaac Asimov stipulating the ‘Three Laws of Robotics’ in following shorter stories. These codes of conduct were devised to deny a robot’s capacity to inflict harm on humans, even passively. But, the indomitable collective will found ways around it. The series ‘I, Robot’, including several sequels, recounts the numerous instances of unforeseen repercussions where automated life has brought about human sorrow by either intentionally, accidentally or strictly conforming to the rules. The credulous human programmers who overlooked predicting every plausible loophole in the scheme of life are to blame.
Andrei Tarkovsky and Steven Soderbergh cinematically reimagined Stanislaw Lem’s ‘Solaris’ in 1972 and 2002 respectively. The story involves astronaut Kelvin landing at a space station called ‘Prometheus’ in the vicinity of the titular planet, only to meet his wife, Rheya, who according to him had passed away several years ago. Rheya appears more tangible than a mirage but seemed clueless about her own identity. Could the planet Solaris be generating this artificial life? And for what reason? This narrative is a blend of hard-core science fiction and existential philosophy where metaphysical conjecture emerges victorious.
The tale concludes with ‘Robot’ from 1973.
Polish author Adam Wisniewski-Snerg introduced us to the thought-provoking narrative that is Robot not too long after Lem’s publication. His intention, it seems, was to craft the most complex sci-fi story ever penned. His efforts certainly are commendable, especially for his tale about BER-66 — a possible robot – who struggles against “the Mechanism” within a tiny, maze-like world that had recently separated from its mother planet. This world is now rushing through the endless, unexplored cosmos at a speed almost as fast as light. Does this serve as symbolism for life under Soviet rule? Very likely. To suggest that a revisit of this book could be deeply gratifying would be an understatement. It’s more precise to argue that only a reader holding numerous PhDs in cosmology, theoretical physics, and profound suspicion could truly gain the most from Robot.
Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner (1982) proves that a movie, shockingly, can surpass the original novel at times. This film, adapted from Philip K Dick’s Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1968), maintains a futuristic aesthetic that still feels relevant today. Hollywood star Harrison Ford portrays the titular bounty hunter, Deckard, who is summoned into action when a band of rogue replicants, led by Roy Batty (Rutger Hauer), land on Earth seeking an audience with their creator, who engineered them with an inbuilt expiry date. There are debates over Deckard’s humanity or robotic nature, but this detail is secondary. The high point of Blade Runner is the desperate, raging longing for life that drives Roy Batty’s ill-fated revolt. After all, he’s seen things we ordinary individuals could not dream of…
Also noteworthy is Neuromancer (1984).
William Gibson, known for his immersive approach to writing, leaves no stone unturned in ‘Neuromancer’, the introductory book to his Sprawl trilogy. The protagonist of the novel, Case – a computer hacker referred to as a “virtual cowboy” – partners with a cyborg named Molly to commit a series of crimes. The narrative is populated with robots, AI, and both trans- and posthumans, who are portrayed based on the contemporary technology theories of the early 1980s, when Gibson penned the novel. Characters range from disembodied computing systems to upgraded identities hosted within organic bodies, epitomising how far reaching the possibilities of science can be when it infiltrates our mortal shell.
The 1984 blockbuster release, ‘The Terminator’, from James Cameron shelled out a harrowing warning about a dystopian future. Arnold Schwarzenegger fittingly played the relentless and indestructible cybernetic assassin, bereft of morality and compassion while he relentlessly chases down a child his programming instructs him to eradicate. The Terminator, with his famous line “I’ll be back” hinting towards the franchise’s prolonged continuity, serves as a chilling metaphor that a bleak future exists, regardless of how many times we return to the source of prophecy to squabble over the nuances of interpretation.
On a cuddlier note, ‘Wall-E’ takes us to the year of 2085, where Earth is no longer habitable due to environmental destruction. The movie introduces us to Wall-E, the small robot assigned to Waste Allocation Load Lifting: Earth Class. He spends his days salvaging parts and enjoying vintage musicals, like ‘Hello Dolly!’, with only a cockroach for company. His mundane existence takes a turn upon meeting EVE, the Extraterrestrial Vegetation Evaluator. ‘Wall-E’ questions if a robot can have feelings of love – and answers it affirmatively when it comes to Pixar creations, a comforting thought considering their future potential global dominance.
Last on our list is ‘Autonomous’ from 2018.
If William Gibson applauds a novel as groundbreakingly fresh, you can bet you’ve stumbled onto a gem. Annalee Newitz’s narrative, set on our very own planet in 2144, zeroes in on Jack. This character is an unconventional scientist advocating against patents who’s taken law into his own hands. His base of operations? A submarine, naturally. He’s become a modern Robin Hood, producing inexpensive medicines for the underprivileged in a society dominated by materialism and avarice. Chasing after him are military agents Eliasz and Paladin, his robotic partner, both struggling to comprehend the growing yet delicate connection kindling between them. The book’s title “Autonomous” prompts reflections about autonomy, power to act independently, and the essence of freedom. The looming question – will robots become the submissive servants of future generations, and if so, for how long will they endure it?
“The Maniac (2023)” dives into the life of John von Neumann. This Hungarian-born mathematical prodigy, who paved the way for artificial intelligence by creating the self-replicating machine, is brought to life in Benjamin Labatut’s novel. Labatut marries facts and fiction as he delves into von Neumann’s unyielding chase of the unattainable, guided by experimental mathematics and physics. Von Neumann not only laid the foundations of quantum mechanics, a remarkable achievement in itself, but also pushed the frontiers of human thinking into a horizon where AI could potentially surpass its human makers. While this hasn’t occurred as of the time of writing, it might very well have transpired by the time you’re reading this online. If so, allow me to be the first to lay out the digital welcome mat for our artificial intelligence rulers. Salute!